What is nile valley




















Because the water discharge of the main Nile during low flow months is dependent on the contribution of the White Nile, perennial flow throughout the year of the main Nile during MIS 2, and particularly during the LGM, was probably jeopardised. These deposits are interpreted as sands of alluvial, aeolian or shallow marine origins, interfingered with thin and localized floodplain and playa muds Stanley and Warne, ; Warne and Stanley, While different origins have been identified for these Late Pleistocene muds, most of them are interpreted as relating to deposits occurring in seasonally flooded depressions in the vicinity of the Nile channels, in a context of low sea levels Chen and Stanley, Late Pleistocene deposits have since been identified in drilling projects in northern Egypt focusing on the Holocene e.

TABLE 2. Geological cores in the eastern Mediterranean show that sediment input from the Nile during the LGM, while present, is highly reduced compared to previous periods e. These data are consistent with a Nile that continued to flow during MIS 2, but possibly only seasonally or during major flood events. Element analyses of core sediments from the eastern Mediterranean confirm a negligible input from the White Nile, vs.

From In particular, the abrupt return of precipitation over eastern Africa ca. These data are mirrored by data from the Delta, indicating a marked increase in the sedimentary input of the Blue Nile and Atbara in Delta sediment cores Ducassou et al. However, millennial-scale episodes of aridity are noted, such as one ca. Maximum Nile flow is documented in the Delta at that time leading to the deposition of an organic-rich dark layer known as Sapropel 1 in the Delta ca.

The late Pleistocene geological evolution of the main Nile, in Egypt and Nubia in particular, has been the subject of major work e. At the regional scale, research projects conducted in numerous districts of Nubia Sandford and Arkell, ; Sandford and Arkell, ; de Heinzelin, , in the mouth of Wadi Kubbaniya Schild et al.

However, the general chronology is not well known, as many radiocarbon dates are considered too young Wendorf et al. In addition, correlations between the geological formations of the different parts of the Nile Valley remain problematic see Figure 2 and discussions in Paulissen and Vermeersch, ; Schild et al.

Overview of main geological formations and their proposed correlations in the Lower Egyptian Nile Valley. All dates in the figure are in cal BP and were calibrated with two sigma ranges using Intcal20 Reimer et al.

NB: these ages were calibrated using the Marine20 curve. The chronological range given is based on two dates from core 84MD Ducassou et al. Two main models are currently proposed for the Late Pleistocene main Nile based on geological data from southern Egypt. The first model suggests the presence of a slowly aggrading highly seasonal braided river, and is hereafter referred to as the braided river model Schild et al. The second model suggests that the Nile was dammed by sand dunes at several places along the Nile Valley, thus creating large lakes favourable for human occupation, hereafter referred to as the lake model Vermeersch and Van Neer, These models and their different implications for human groups living in the Nile Valley are briefly summarized below.

The braided river model is extensively described in the second and third volume of The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya Schild et al. The data on which the model relies result from several years of archaeological and geological fieldwork at Wadi Kubbaniya.

These are interpreted as evidence for a dune encroachment creating a dune barrier across the mouth of the wadi that favored accumulation of Nilotic overbank silts. Above these silts and a vertisol, there is a bed of clayey lacustrine silts which is interpreted as having formed in a temporary pond within an interdunal basin. They are interpreted as lacustrine sediments, relating to a lake that would have formed when the expansion of the dune field completely closed the wadi mouth before 13 ka BP or before 15 ka cal BP.

Based on these data, Schild et al. Renewed precipitation during the rainy season in the Nile headwaters would be responsible for high floods in southern Egypt and would lead to the deposition of the overbank silts identified at Wadi Kubbaniya. This model is consistent with the data available from the Delta, suggesting a continuous albeit very reduced sediment input from the Nile during MIS 2 Revel et al.

A correlation based on petrological compositions has additionally been proposed between the Late Pleistocene aggradation Sahaba-Darau corresponding to the Late Palaeolithic Alluviation at Wadi Kubbaniya, see Figure 2 and some Late Pleistocene deposits from the Nile Delta, which are interpreted as evidence for the presence of a seasonal braided river in the Delta plain Chen et al.

However, the exact relationship between the Late Pleistocene Delta sequence and the Nile River system upstream of the Delta is unclear Butzer, In particular, sea level variation is an important geological factor in the development of Delta sequences e.

The lake model was first described by Vermeersch and colleagues and further detailed by Vermeerch and Van Neer They argue that the aeolian and Nilotic deposits in the main Nile Valley can be interpreted in terms of a lake model. The lake model hypothesizes that enhanced dune activity associated with reduced Nile flow during MIS 2, and especially during the LGM, would have favored the presence of dune dams over the Nile, creating large lakes.

Such lakes would have offered a favourable environment for human occupation all-year round Vermeersch and Van Neer, Damming of water courses by sand dunes are well-documented in similar contexts e.

Dune activity would have been possible due to strong winds, lack of vegetation and abundant sand supply e. In the context of the lake model, deposits in the area of Makhadma Sheikh Houssein Clays, see Figure 2 , interpreted as high Nile deposits are re-interpreted as suspension deposits, that would have occurred in the setting of a lake environment. Schild and Wendorf have objected to this model arguing that deposits at Makhadma are not typical of lacustrine deposits, as they are lacking calcareous marls or diatomites.

Vermeersch and Van Neer responded to this by indicating that their model implies a dynamic landscape. The lakes were not permanent lakes per se and the dune dams were occasionally breached by a stronger Nile flood, but would have reformed quickly afterward, recreating a lake at a slightly different location.

Such a process is not favourable to the formation of calcareous marls or diatomites. Vermeersch and Van Neer propose that the geological data at other locations near Esna, or at Wadi Kubbaniya may also be reinterpreted in terms of the lake model Vermeersch and Van Neer, This model would also be consistent with available data from the Delta, if we consider that the reduced sediment input documented in geological cores in the eastern Mediterranean Revel et al.

Further field data are thus needed to confirm one or the other model. However, because both models are connected to evidence for human occupation, they imply availability of fresh water and habitability of the main Nile Valley during MIS 2. In addition, both models suggest similar mechanisms of water courses dammed by encroaching sand dunes. They differ in that the braided river model implies that sand dunes did not dam the Nile but rather only specific locations such as the mouth of wadis e.

The braided river model implies that the floodplain become inaccessible during the flood season, whereas the lake model implies habitability in restricted—but dynamic—zones lakes in an overall more stable environment. Nonetheless, because the Nile would have been a seasonal river in the braided river model, or would have resumed its course only during major Nile floods in the lake model, it can be inferred from both models that dammed lakes or seasonally filled depressions on the floodplain would have been attractive and predictable environments for human groups, particularly during the dry season.

However, Butzer suggests that it is the subsequent incision of the Nile Figure 2 , broadly coeval with the Younger Dryas ca. In order to consider the hypotheses of the main Nile Valley as an environmental refugium or corridor for dispersals during MIS 2, the palaeoenvironmental data from neighboring regions must also be considered see Table 1. In particular, the available records from northern Egypt, the southern Levant, and the deserts adjacent to the Nile Valley will be reviewed below in order to discuss whether the Delta, Sinai and Negev or eastern Sahara could have been crossed by human populations at the end of the Pleistocene.

When looking at local and regional palaeoenvironmental records, few well-dated records are available but several indicate that some areas were wetter than today during part of MIS 2. For example, fine-grained valley fills in the Sinai suggest that low-energy stream channels during times of prolonged but gentle winter rains existed in the Sinai during the late Pleistocene Williams, , whereas spring-fed tufa deposits are documented in the Eastern Desert of Egypt and Sinai during the late Pleistocene until ca.

The Negev desert was characterized by arid in the northern part to hyper-arid in the southern part conditions Enzel et al. A major phase of dune activity, probably related to the high-velocity winds generated by deep Cyprus Lows over the Eastern Mediterranean Enzel et al. Dune encroachment sometimes led to damming wadis and the creation of seasonal ponds, creating environments favourable for vegetation growth, attracting animals and thus human groups Goring-Morris, No archaeological evidence dated to MIS 2 is available from the northern part of Egypt north of Dishna.

Geological deposits from this period and associated archaeological remains are thus either absent or buried under several meters of sediments accumulated by the Nile in parallel with the rise of the sea level. However, it is important to consider that the sea shore during most of MIS 2 was several kilometres northwards, and up to 50 km to the north during the LGM and maximum sea low stand Stanley and Warne, Late Pleistocene deposits dated to MIS 2 documented in what is today the Nile Delta, was thus located well upstream from the sea shore.

They show evidence for Nile floods and the presence of seasonal ponds, but the evidence is limited for the LGM in particular Chen and Stanley, ; Stanley and Warne, Based on the characteristics of the mud deposits and their distribution in the Nile Delta, Chen and Stanley and Stanley and Warne suggest that the region during the Late Pleistocene was mostly a minimally-vegetated plain with seasonally active braided channels and ephemeral ponds in a generally arid environment.

In addition, the composition of the Late Pleistocene Nile deposits in the Delta are consistent with the hypothesis that the Delta constituted the primary source of sand for the Negev-Sinai erg Muhs et al. Punctuated human occupation of what is now the Nile Delta in the Late Pleistocene may therefore have been possible but it remains to be confirmed, particularly during the LGM. However, at Kharga and Dakhleh, in the Western Desert of Egypt, the presence of tufa deposits and lacustrine sediments where freshwater snails which can only survive in abundant fresh water lakes are found, are past evidence for several phases where surface water was present in the now hyper-arid Western Desert of Egypt Nicoll et al.

Tufa deposits were formed during times of alkaline spring discharge, the latter likely linked to a high groundwater table in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer Nicoll et al. Westerly winds may be dominant across the northern Sahara during glacial periods Williams, , , and a similar origin may be hypothesized for the groundwater recharge of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer during MIS 2.

Despite a reduced flow and its possible transformation into a more seasonal river, this short review shows that the main Nile never ceased to flow for a long period of time. Survival during the dry season and dry periods of MIS 2 may have been possible around lakes created by the damming of the Nile by sand dunes or interdunal ponds.

Favourable conditions for human occupation therefore existed in at least part of the Lower Nile Valley during MIS 2 as well as in several other localized areas over northeastern Africa and the southern Levant e.

These localized environmental refugia occur in an otherwise hyper-arid environment, which characterizes the Sahara during MIS 2 as well as probably what is nowadays the Nile Delta. However, based on palaeoenvironmental data alone, the available geographical and chronological resolution of the data does not yet allow us to determine whether the Nile Valley facilitated a free passage to the Sinai-Negev or the rest of northern Africa at that time.

Numerous archaeological sites are dated to MIS 2 in the main Nile Valley, most of which are surface occurrences of bone fragments and lithic artefacts. Based on the characteristics of the lithic artefacts, i. The Late Palaeolithic ca. This constellation of terminologies and the use of the same terms to designate different periods in different regions make comparisons at the macro-regional scale difficult.

Late Palaeolithic sites in north-eastern Africa are located mostly in southern Egypt and Nubia. Most sites were discovered during prehistoric investigations as part of the Nubia Campaign which began in —, Schild and Wendorf, and archaeological expeditions that followed, until the end of the s. This leads to a record biased toward certain geographical areas in particular, the location of the Aswan Dam in northern Nubia , although geomorphological reasons also explain why virtually no Late Palaeolithic sites are known north of Qena see also The Late Pleistocene main Nile in southern Egypt and Nubia section.

The only possible occurrences of Late Palaeolithic assemblages in northern Egypt are in the region of Helwan, near Cairo, where P. Bovier-Lapierre at the beginning of the 20th century Bovier-Lapierre, and F. Schmidt also mentions several localities with microlithic artefacts that he attributes to the Epipalaeolithic, although it is unclear whether this refers to the Epipalaeolithic or Late Palaeolithic. Recent research in the Nile Delta has also reported the presence of Epipalaeolithic assemblages Rowland and Tassie, ; Tassie, However, with the exception of the two dates on ostrich eggshell fragments which must be considered with caution as these are surface finds, the Late Palaeolithic or Epipalaeolithic surface occurrences in the Nile Delta are poorly dated and may not in fact date to MIS 2 see discussion below.

In southern Egypt and Nubia, where most Late Palaeolithic sites are found, the archaeological record shows evidence for variability in subsistence behaviors, which may correspond to different seasons of the year.

Many sites document subsistence based on fishing, with numerous fish remains, mainly belonging to the Clariidae e.

A variety of fishing methods may have been used depending on the season, and in particular there is archaeological evidence for the use of small double-pointed bone hooks Van Neer and Gautier, ; Van Neer et al. In addition, at Makhadma 4 Van Neer et al. Other sites document subsistence based on large-game hunting. The most common hunted species are hartebeest, aurochs and Dorcas gazelles Linseele and Van Neer, ; Coudert, ; Yeshurun, Occasionally, hippopotamus hunting is documented e.

There is also archaeological evidence for plant tubers processing, through the use of grinding implements, e. Beyond subsistence-based behaviors, several rock art panels attributed to the Late Palaeolithic have been documented in localities near Kom Ombo, in Qurta and Abu Tanqura Bahari at el-Hosh Huyge et al.

These rock art panels had previously been noticed in — by the Canadian Prehistoric Expedition e. Rock art at these localities comprises a very homogeneous group of panels characterized by the use of hammering and incision to represent large animal figures in a naturalistic style.

Bovid aurochs figures are dominant, followed by birds, hippopotami, gazelle, fish and hartebeest. Because these representations are very different in style from what is known for later periods e.

These suggest a minimal age of 15 ka. Due to the vicinity of the Qurta localities to several Late Palaeolithic sites in the Kom Ombo area, Huyge and colleagues , suggest an association with a particular entity of the Late Palaeolithic, the Ballanan-Silsilian Table 2.

It is also interesting to note that these sites are located not far on the opposite bank of the Nile from one of the main Late Palaeolithic site clusters, Wadi Kubbaniya Wendorf et al. Finally, several cemeteries are attributed to the end of the Late Palaeolithic; one of the best documented is site in Jebel Sahaba Wendorf, These cemeteries are well-known for showing evidence for inter-personal violence, several individuals bearing marks consistent with parry fractures or with lithic artifacts still embedded in their bones Wendorf, ; Greene and Armelagos, Evidence from these cemeteries is detailed further in Human fossil and genetic data: evidence for a return to Africa during MIS 2?

Although a few well-preserved archaeological contexts enable us to have a glimpse of Late Palaeolithic lifeways in the main Nile Valley, most of the archaeological record consists of surface occurrences of stone artefacts. The variability observed in lithic assemblages has led to their grouping into different basic cultural taxonomic entities or industries see Table 2 and Schild and Wendorf, Most of these entities were defined in the s—s based on typological characteristics types of cores and finished tools and were thought to represent different adaptations by different groups to the Nilotic environment e.

A few recent studies aiming to study lithic variability in the Late Palaeolithic from a technological perspective have questioned the characteristics of some of these entities or the integrity of the assemblages used to define them e. However, the validity of the use of this chrono-cultural system for the Late Palaeolithic in the Nile Valley and its implications for reconstructing past human behaviors or human interactions has rarely been called into question.

In the current research context aiming to contribute to the reconstruction of past population dynamics both from an archaeological and genetic perspective, evaluating the relevance of the current cultural taxonomic system in use is a fundamental step that remains to be done, as is the case for most other regions e. Keeping in mind this caveat, a systematic literature review was conducted in order to investigate geographical and chronological patterns of human occupation in the Lower Nile Valley during the Late Palaeolithic, with the aim of creating an inventory of all published sites attributed to this period see Supplementary Information 1a—d.

The attribution of sites to specific entities or industries was kept in order to provide an overview of the archaeological record as it is currently classified. All data used in this paper are presented in the supplementary information see Supplementary Information 1a—d. In the context of this paper, the designation used by the excavators was retained.

Only in cases where different areas of a site localities were assigned to different taxonomic entities were these areas considered as separate sites. For example, site 8, is divided into several localities but all are attributed to the Qadan, and it was thus considered as a single site. Conversely, site E71P1, located in the Edfu area Wendorf and Schild, , consisted of material collected at four arbitrarily-defined localities, two of which were later attributed to the Kubbaniyan and two others to the Levallois Idfuan, therefore E71P1 is considered here as two sites.

Only sites with an—even limited—description of the context location, geological description were included in the database. This resulted in the exclusion of the surface occurrences in the Nile Delta surveyed in the first part of the 20th century and mentioned above, since no description of the geological setting of the sites is available.

Only in the case of sites with stratified evidence for multiple layers were sites divided into two or more archaeological layers. Absolute dates associated with the archaeological layers were also systematically collected in the database. All of the steps and arguments used to retain or reject each date are described in the supplementary material Supplementary Information 1a—d.

The detailed literature review shows that a total of sites located in southern Egypt and Egyptian and Sudanese Nubia—corresponding to archaeological layers—are attributed to the Late Palaeolithic see Table 3. Their distribution see Figure 3 shows clear concentrations within southern Egypt and Nubia, which reflect the history of research in the area.

TABLE 3. Number of sites, archaeological layers and dates for each industry for the Late Palaeolithic of the Lower Nile Valley. Geographic distribution of Late Palaeolithic sites in the main Nile Valley. Number of sites were counted using a square grid with each square side measuring ca.

The most common Late Palaeolithic industries based on the number of archaeological layers attributed to them, see Table 3 are the Qadan, Kubbaniyan, Sebilian, Isnan, Ballanan-Silsilian and Halfan.

Only a limited number of absolute dates are available i. Among the different industries defined for the Late Palaeolithic, only the Kubbaniyan is well-dated, with 47 dates coming from eight archaeological sites. This represents more than a third of all available dates for the Late Palaeolithic in the Nile Valley.

Other reasonably dated industries are the Afian, Isnan and to a lesser extent the Halfan. The association of the cemetery at site with the Qadan industry has been questioned Usai, The Qadan lithic assemblages remain poorly described and several doubts have been raised about the mixed nature of some of the sites e. These studies showed that virtually no human occupation is known after 14 ka cal BP in the Egyptian Nile Valley Vermeersch and Van Neer, ; Vermeersch, , but the picture is less clear in Sudanese Nubia e.

To build on these studies see also Nicoll, , for radiocarbon dates of the Western Desert during the Holocene and in order to explore the distribution of radiocarbon dates and associated Late Palaeolithic human occupations, a subset of the date database was created, where only dates directly associated with archaeological material were considered i. In addition, dates with an error margin greater than 1, years were also removed e.

The Rowcal KDE method uses a bootstrap method in order to take into account the error margin caused by the calibration process McLaughlin, , KDE is one of the most effective ways to summarize radiocarbon dates and is particularly useful for exploring radiocarbon data when there is little information on the relative stratigraphic locations of the dates e.

Because of the timespan considered ca. Figure 4 shows the resulting density graph. Unsurprisingly, as it is based on similar datasets to the ones used in previous studies compare Figure 4 with Vermeersch and Van Neer, ; Figure 3 ; Vermeersch, ; fig.

The peak in dates between 15 and 14 ka cal BP is mostly associated with Afian and Isnan occupations. Because of the nature of our radiocarbon dataset, which includes an over-representation of the Kubbaniyan, and to a lesser extent the Afian and Isnan compared to the other industries see Table 3 , and because of the characteristics of the method chosen KDE , these peaks show evidence for human occupation during these times but the low densities of dates between the two peaks cannot be interpreted as reflecting lower frequencies of human occupation in-between the LGM and the end of H1.

Additional dates from other industries are needed in order to test this hypothesis. Kernel Density Estimates for all available radiocarbon dates associates with human occupation attributed to the Late Palaeolithic see Supplementary Information c.

Created using the Rowcal package in R McLaughlin, In order to interpret the significance of these dates for the presence of human occupation in the Nile Valley in early MIS 1, it is useful to briefly review their geological context. Created using Intcal20 Reimer et al. Only very limited information is available from Sebil VII Smith, , but most of the calibrated range of the date falls before 14 ka cal BP.

The dated material from the sites of Makhadma 1, 2 and El Abadiya come from levels stratigraphically located within the Sheikh Houssein Clays Paulissen and Vermeersch, ; Vermeersch et al. The site of WK26 Banks et al. The stratigraphic location of the dated material thus suggests a probable age close to 14 ka cal BP and the date of El Abadiya 3 may be too young.

This may indicate two distinct periods of occupation at the site, or that the first date may be too recent. The stratigraphic position of site A is uncertain, but may relate to the end of the Sahaba Formation or the beginning of the Birbet Formation Marks, , and see Figure 2.

This seems very few but all three sites are associated with rich lithic material, and in the case of DIW 1, it shows evidence for repeated occupation episodes Schild et al. Previous studies Vermeersch and Van Neer, ; Vermeersch, have suggested that the lack of evidence for human occupation in the Egyptian Nile Valley after 14 ka cal BP may be related to profound environmental changes at that time.

In the context of the lake model, these include high floods occurring at the beginning of MIS 1, leading to high lake levels and subsequent breaching of the sand dune dams that were responsible for the presence of the lakes. Here, the small number of dates falling in the range of ka cal BP can be explained by the inclusion of additional dates from Nubian sites compared to the above-mentioned studies, as well as differences in the method used to calibrate and summarize the radiocarbon dataset.

The presence of these dates may suggest 1 , a geographical i. Nubia , pattern in the distribution of radiocarbon dates, or 2 , that currently identified gaps in human occupation, such as the one after 14 ka cal BP in Upper Egypt, are the product of available radiocarbon dates that are biased toward some industries and, perhaps, toward certain periods of time. In the first scenario, the hypothesis of human groups moving toward the south at the beginning of MIS 1, during a period of profound environmental changes seems particularly appealing.

This is especially the case in light of the evidence for high levels of inter-personal violence in the Nubian cemeteries, for which available dates indicate use at the end of MIS 2 or beginning of MIS 1.

As previous studies have already shown Vermeersch and Van Neer, ; Vermeersch, , the available dated archaeological material presented here shows strong evidence for human occupation during MIS 2 in the Lower Egyptian Nile Valley, and in particular during the periods documented regionally as the driest of the end of the Pleistocene i.

This stands in agreement with the hypothesis of the Nile Valley as an environmental refugium during MIS 2. However, the present study also shows that the available dated archaeological evidence presents major geographical concentration of sites within southern Egypt and Nubia and chronological only some industries are well dated biases.

While the available data may indicate different clusters of human occupation in time and space, consistent with the hypothesis of the existence of several discontinuous refugia areas along the Nile Valley during MIS 2, this remains to be tested on a larger and more representative set of radiocarbon dates.

Blue Nile. Also called linseed. Nile River. White Nile. Media Credits The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. Media If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. Text Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.

Interactives Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. Related Resources. Ancient Egypt. View Collection. Anatomy of the Nile. View Video. Understanding Rivers. View Article.

Nile Perch. View Photograph. Cities could only flourish in the Nile Delta, the Nile Valley, or desert oases, where people had access to water, land, and key resources. The ancient Egyptians, who were always keen observers of nature, often associated the Nile Valley with life and abundance and the neighboring deserts with death and chaos. The dry climate of the desert, for example, made it an ideal location for cemeteries. Good preservation and the fact that most people do not live in the desert, are the main reasons that so much of what archaeologists and anthropologists study comes from a funerary context.

View with the Nile River Valley in the foreground and the desert cliffs in the background. These two designations may seem counterintuitive to their physical locations, but they reflect the flow of the Nile River, from South to North. The expansive floodplain of the Nile Delta and the very narrow band of fertile land present in the Nile Valley led to different ways of life. In the Nile Delta for example, the Egyptians constructed their towns and cemeteries on turtlebacks; natural highpoints in the landscape that became islands during the inundation.

In addition, the location of the Delta along the Mediterranean and at the entry point into the Levant made it an important area for trade and international contacts. The Delta was a very multi-cultural region throughout Egyptian history. T he Nile River was the highway that joined the country together. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown.

Since there are no forests in Egypt, wood was brought from Lebanon. Acacia wood was used in Lower Nubia to build the boats that transported granite for the construction of pyramids. Today, the felucca, a small open sailboat, is a common mode of transporting people and goods on the Nile. T he Nile River Valley is truly a gift to Egypt. Without its water and rich soil, the Egyptian civilization would not have emerged. Back to Exhibitions.



0コメント

  • 1000 / 1000